How I Built a Python Compiler (Yes, Really!)

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Imagine being able to peek under the hood of Python itself—and even build your own version of it. It might sound like science fiction, but trust me: with a little determination and some hands-on coding, you too can create a working compiler in Python. In this article, we’re going to break down the process in a clear, actionable way. Whether you’re a low-level coding enthusiast or just curious about how Python transforms your code into something the computer can understand, this guide is for you.

info: Building a compiler not only deepens your understanding of programming languages but also sharpens your problem-solving skills. It’s a rewarding challenge for any developer.

1. The Big Picture: From Code to Action

At its core, Python is both compiled and interpreted. When you write a Python program, the interpreter first translates your human-friendly code into an intermediate form known as bytecode. This bytecode is then executed by a virtual machine. Understanding this two-step process is crucial because it means you can actually build your own compiler that mimics this behavior.

Key Takeaways:

Compilation Step: Converts source code into bytecode.
Interpretation Step: Executes the bytecode using a virtual machine (VM).

info: According to performance benchmarks, Python 3.11’s Specializing Adaptive Interpreter has improved performance by up to 25% compared to previous versions. This shows the continuous evolution and optimization of the Python execution model.

It may seem complex at first, but think of it as a recipe: first, you prepare your ingredients (the code), then you follow the steps (compile and interpret) to get the final dish (the program’s output).

2. Rolling Up Your Sleeves: Breaking Down the Process

A. Understanding Python’s Compilation to Bytecode

Before writing any code, it’s essential to understand what happens under the hood. Python’s interpreter reads your script and compiles it into bytecode—a set of instructions that the Python virtual machine (PVM) can execute. Although this isn’t machine code, it’s a simplified, platform-independent representation of your program.

info: The dis module is a great tool to explore Python bytecode. By inspecting the bytecode of simple functions, you can demystify the inner workings of the interpreter.

Example:


<span>import</span> <span>dis</span>
<span>def</span> <span>add</span><span>(</span><span>a</span><span>,</span> <span>b</span><span>):</span>
    <span>return</span> <span>a</span> <span>+</span> <span>b</span>
<span>dis</span><span>.</span><span>dis</span><span>(</span><span>add</span><span>)</span>
<span>import</span> <span>dis</span>

<span>def</span> <span>add</span><span>(</span><span>a</span><span>,</span> <span>b</span><span>):</span>
    <span>return</span> <span>a</span> <span>+</span> <span>b</span>

<span>dis</span><span>.</span><span>dis</span><span>(</span><span>add</span><span>)</span>
import dis

def add(a, b):
    return a + b

dis.dis(add)

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Running this snippet shows you how operations like addition are decomposed into lower-level instructions.

B. Writing a Basic Compiler in Python

Now, imagine building a miniature compiler that takes a small subset of Python code and converts it into a sequence of bytecode-like instructions. The goal is to recreate the journey from source code to executable actions.

Step-by-Step Approach:

Tokenization: Break the source code into tokens—the smallest units (numbers, operators, keywords) that form your program.


   <span>class</span> <span>Token</span><span>:</span>
       <span>def</span> <span>__init__</span><span>(</span><span>self</span><span>,</span> <span>type_</span><span>,</span> <span>value</span><span>=</span><span>None</span><span>):</span>
           <span>self</span><span>.</span><span>type</span> <span>=</span> <span>type_</span>
           <span>self</span><span>.</span><span>value</span> <span>=</span> <span>value</span>
       <span>def</span> <span>__repr__</span><span>(</span><span>self</span><span>):</span>
           <span>return</span> <span>f</span><span>"</span><span>Token(</span><span>{</span><span>self</span><span>.</span><span>type</span><span>!r}</span><span>, </span><span>{</span><span>self</span><span>.</span><span>value</span><span>!r}</span><span>)</span><span>"</span>
   <span>class</span> <span>Token</span><span>:</span>
       <span>def</span> <span>__init__</span><span>(</span><span>self</span><span>,</span> <span>type_</span><span>,</span> <span>value</span><span>=</span><span>None</span><span>):</span>
           <span>self</span><span>.</span><span>type</span> <span>=</span> <span>type_</span>
           <span>self</span><span>.</span><span>value</span> <span>=</span> <span>value</span>

       <span>def</span> <span>__repr__</span><span>(</span><span>self</span><span>):</span>
           <span>return</span> <span>f</span><span>"</span><span>Token(</span><span>{</span><span>self</span><span>.</span><span>type</span><span>!r}</span><span>, </span><span>{</span><span>self</span><span>.</span><span>value</span><span>!r}</span><span>)</span><span>"</span>
   class Token:
       def __init__(self, type_, value=None):
           self.type = type_
           self.value = value

       def __repr__(self):
           return f"Token({self.type!r}, {self.value!r})"

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Parsing: Convert tokens into an Abstract Syntax Tree (AST). The AST represents your code in a structured, hierarchical form.


   <span>class</span> <span>ASTNode</span><span>:</span>
       <span>pass</span>
   <span>class</span> <span>BinOp</span><span>(</span><span>ASTNode</span><span>):</span>
       <span>def</span> <span>__init__</span><span>(</span><span>self</span><span>,</span> <span>op</span><span>,</span> <span>left</span><span>,</span> <span>right</span><span>):</span>
           <span>self</span><span>.</span><span>op</span> <span>=</span> <span>op</span>
           <span>self</span><span>.</span><span>left</span> <span>=</span> <span>left</span>
           <span>self</span><span>.</span><span>right</span> <span>=</span> <span>right</span>
       <span>def</span> <span>__repr__</span><span>(</span><span>self</span><span>):</span>
           <span>return</span> <span>f</span><span>"</span><span>BinOp(</span><span>{</span><span>self</span><span>.</span><span>left</span><span>!r}</span><span> </span><span>{</span><span>self</span><span>.</span><span>op</span><span>}</span><span> </span><span>{</span><span>self</span><span>.</span><span>right</span><span>!r}</span><span>)</span><span>"</span>
   <span>class</span> <span>Number</span><span>(</span><span>ASTNode</span><span>):</span>
       <span>def</span> <span>__init__</span><span>(</span><span>self</span><span>,</span> <span>value</span><span>):</span>
           <span>self</span><span>.</span><span>value</span> <span>=</span> <span>value</span>
       <span>def</span> <span>__repr__</span><span>(</span><span>self</span><span>):</span>
           <span>return</span> <span>f</span><span>"</span><span>Number(</span><span>{</span><span>self</span><span>.</span><span>value</span><span>}</span><span>)</span><span>"</span>
   <span>class</span> <span>ASTNode</span><span>:</span>
       <span>pass</span>

   <span>class</span> <span>BinOp</span><span>(</span><span>ASTNode</span><span>):</span>
       <span>def</span> <span>__init__</span><span>(</span><span>self</span><span>,</span> <span>op</span><span>,</span> <span>left</span><span>,</span> <span>right</span><span>):</span>
           <span>self</span><span>.</span><span>op</span> <span>=</span> <span>op</span>
           <span>self</span><span>.</span><span>left</span> <span>=</span> <span>left</span>
           <span>self</span><span>.</span><span>right</span> <span>=</span> <span>right</span>

       <span>def</span> <span>__repr__</span><span>(</span><span>self</span><span>):</span>
           <span>return</span> <span>f</span><span>"</span><span>BinOp(</span><span>{</span><span>self</span><span>.</span><span>left</span><span>!r}</span><span> </span><span>{</span><span>self</span><span>.</span><span>op</span><span>}</span><span> </span><span>{</span><span>self</span><span>.</span><span>right</span><span>!r}</span><span>)</span><span>"</span>

   <span>class</span> <span>Number</span><span>(</span><span>ASTNode</span><span>):</span>
       <span>def</span> <span>__init__</span><span>(</span><span>self</span><span>,</span> <span>value</span><span>):</span>
           <span>self</span><span>.</span><span>value</span> <span>=</span> <span>value</span>

       <span>def</span> <span>__repr__</span><span>(</span><span>self</span><span>):</span>
           <span>return</span> <span>f</span><span>"</span><span>Number(</span><span>{</span><span>self</span><span>.</span><span>value</span><span>}</span><span>)</span><span>"</span>
   class ASTNode:
       pass

   class BinOp(ASTNode):
       def __init__(self, op, left, right):
           self.op = op
           self.left = left
           self.right = right

       def __repr__(self):
           return f"BinOp({self.left!r} {self.op} {self.right!r})"

   class Number(ASTNode):
       def __init__(self, value):
           self.value = value

       def __repr__(self):
           return f"Number({self.value})"

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Compilation: Traverse the AST to generate bytecode instructions. For instance, the expression 3 + 5 should translate into:
- PUSH 3
- PUSH 5
- BINOP '+'


   <span>class</span> <span>Bytecode</span><span>:</span>
       <span>def</span> <span>__init__</span><span>(</span><span>self</span><span>,</span> <span>op</span><span>,</span> <span>arg</span><span>=</span><span>None</span><span>):</span>
           <span>self</span><span>.</span><span>op</span> <span>=</span> <span>op</span>
           <span>self</span><span>.</span><span>arg</span> <span>=</span> <span>arg</span>
       <span>def</span> <span>__repr__</span><span>(</span><span>self</span><span>):</span>
           <span>return</span> <span>f</span><span>"</span><span>Bytecode(</span><span>{</span><span>self</span><span>.</span><span>op</span><span>!r}</span><span>, </span><span>{</span><span>self</span><span>.</span><span>arg</span><span>!r}</span><span>)</span><span>"</span>
   <span>class</span> <span>Compiler</span><span>:</span>
       <span>def</span> <span>__init__</span><span>(</span><span>self</span><span>,</span> <span>ast</span><span>):</span>
           <span>self</span><span>.</span><span>ast</span> <span>=</span> <span>ast</span>
       <span>def</span> <span>compile</span><span>(</span><span>self</span><span>):</span>
           <span>if</span> <span>isinstance</span><span>(</span><span>self</span><span>.</span><span>ast</span><span>,</span> <span>Number</span><span>):</span>
               <span>return</span> <span>[</span><span>Bytecode</span><span>(</span><span>"</span><span>PUSH</span><span>"</span><span>,</span> <span>self</span><span>.</span><span>ast</span><span>.</span><span>value</span><span>)]</span>
           <span>elif</span> <span>isinstance</span><span>(</span><span>self</span><span>.</span><span>ast</span><span>,</span> <span>BinOp</span><span>):</span>
               <span>code</span> <span>=</span> <span>[]</span>
               <span>code</span><span>.</span><span>extend</span><span>(</span><span>Compiler</span><span>(</span><span>self</span><span>.</span><span>ast</span><span>.</span><span>left</span><span>).</span><span>compile</span><span>())</span>
               <span>code</span><span>.</span><span>extend</span><span>(</span><span>Compiler</span><span>(</span><span>self</span><span>.</span><span>ast</span><span>.</span><span>right</span><span>).</span><span>compile</span><span>())</span>
               <span>code</span><span>.</span><span>append</span><span>(</span><span>Bytecode</span><span>(</span><span>"</span><span>BINOP</span><span>"</span><span>,</span> <span>self</span><span>.</span><span>ast</span><span>.</span><span>op</span><span>))</span>
               <span>return</span> <span>code</span>
   <span># Example usage: </span>   <span>ast_example</span> <span>=</span> <span>BinOp</span><span>(</span><span>'</span><span>+</span><span>'</span><span>,</span> <span>Number</span><span>(</span><span>3</span><span>),</span> <span>Number</span><span>(</span><span>5</span><span>))</span>
   <span>bytecodes</span> <span>=</span> <span>Compiler</span><span>(</span><span>ast_example</span><span>).</span><span>compile</span><span>()</span>
   <span>print</span><span>(</span><span>"</span><span>Generated Bytecode:</span><span>"</span><span>,</span> <span>bytecodes</span><span>)</span>
   <span># Output: [Bytecode('PUSH', 3), Bytecode('PUSH', 5), Bytecode('BINOP', '+')] </span>
   <span>class</span> <span>Bytecode</span><span>:</span>
       <span>def</span> <span>__init__</span><span>(</span><span>self</span><span>,</span> <span>op</span><span>,</span> <span>arg</span><span>=</span><span>None</span><span>):</span>
           <span>self</span><span>.</span><span>op</span> <span>=</span> <span>op</span>
           <span>self</span><span>.</span><span>arg</span> <span>=</span> <span>arg</span>

       <span>def</span> <span>__repr__</span><span>(</span><span>self</span><span>):</span>
           <span>return</span> <span>f</span><span>"</span><span>Bytecode(</span><span>{</span><span>self</span><span>.</span><span>op</span><span>!r}</span><span>, </span><span>{</span><span>self</span><span>.</span><span>arg</span><span>!r}</span><span>)</span><span>"</span>

   <span>class</span> <span>Compiler</span><span>:</span>
       <span>def</span> <span>__init__</span><span>(</span><span>self</span><span>,</span> <span>ast</span><span>):</span>
           <span>self</span><span>.</span><span>ast</span> <span>=</span> <span>ast</span>

       <span>def</span> <span>compile</span><span>(</span><span>self</span><span>):</span>
           <span>if</span> <span>isinstance</span><span>(</span><span>self</span><span>.</span><span>ast</span><span>,</span> <span>Number</span><span>):</span>
               <span>return</span> <span>[</span><span>Bytecode</span><span>(</span><span>"</span><span>PUSH</span><span>"</span><span>,</span> <span>self</span><span>.</span><span>ast</span><span>.</span><span>value</span><span>)]</span>
           <span>elif</span> <span>isinstance</span><span>(</span><span>self</span><span>.</span><span>ast</span><span>,</span> <span>BinOp</span><span>):</span>
               <span>code</span> <span>=</span> <span>[]</span>
               <span>code</span><span>.</span><span>extend</span><span>(</span><span>Compiler</span><span>(</span><span>self</span><span>.</span><span>ast</span><span>.</span><span>left</span><span>).</span><span>compile</span><span>())</span>
               <span>code</span><span>.</span><span>extend</span><span>(</span><span>Compiler</span><span>(</span><span>self</span><span>.</span><span>ast</span><span>.</span><span>right</span><span>).</span><span>compile</span><span>())</span>
               <span>code</span><span>.</span><span>append</span><span>(</span><span>Bytecode</span><span>(</span><span>"</span><span>BINOP</span><span>"</span><span>,</span> <span>self</span><span>.</span><span>ast</span><span>.</span><span>op</span><span>))</span>
               <span>return</span> <span>code</span>

   <span># Example usage: </span>   <span>ast_example</span> <span>=</span> <span>BinOp</span><span>(</span><span>'</span><span>+</span><span>'</span><span>,</span> <span>Number</span><span>(</span><span>3</span><span>),</span> <span>Number</span><span>(</span><span>5</span><span>))</span>
   <span>bytecodes</span> <span>=</span> <span>Compiler</span><span>(</span><span>ast_example</span><span>).</span><span>compile</span><span>()</span>
   <span>print</span><span>(</span><span>"</span><span>Generated Bytecode:</span><span>"</span><span>,</span> <span>bytecodes</span><span>)</span>
   <span># Output: [Bytecode('PUSH', 3), Bytecode('PUSH', 5), Bytecode('BINOP', '+')] </span>
   class Bytecode:
       def __init__(self, op, arg=None):
           self.op = op
           self.arg = arg

       def __repr__(self):
           return f"Bytecode({self.op!r}, {self.arg!r})"

   class Compiler:
       def __init__(self, ast):
           self.ast = ast

       def compile(self):
           if isinstance(self.ast, Number):
               return [Bytecode("PUSH", self.ast.value)]
           elif isinstance(self.ast, BinOp):
               code = []
               code.extend(Compiler(self.ast.left).compile())
               code.extend(Compiler(self.ast.right).compile())
               code.append(Bytecode("BINOP", self.ast.op))
               return code

   # Example usage:    ast_example = BinOp('+', Number(3), Number(5))
   bytecodes = Compiler(ast_example).compile()
   print("Generated Bytecode:", bytecodes)
   # Output: [Bytecode('PUSH', 3), Bytecode('PUSH', 5), Bytecode('BINOP', '+')]

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Interpretation: Build a simple virtual machine (VM) to execute the bytecode instructions. Use a stack to manage intermediate results.


   <span>class</span> <span>Interpreter</span><span>:</span>
       <span>def</span> <span>__init__</span><span>(</span><span>self</span><span>,</span> <span>bytecodes</span><span>):</span>
           <span>self</span><span>.</span><span>bytecodes</span> <span>=</span> <span>bytecodes</span>
           <span>self</span><span>.</span><span>stack</span> <span>=</span> <span>[]</span>
       <span>def</span> <span>run</span><span>(</span><span>self</span><span>):</span>
           <span>for</span> <span>bc</span> <span>in</span> <span>self</span><span>.</span><span>bytecodes</span><span>:</span>
               <span>if</span> <span>bc</span><span>.</span><span>op</span> <span>==</span> <span>"</span><span>PUSH</span><span>"</span><span>:</span>
                   <span>self</span><span>.</span><span>stack</span><span>.</span><span>append</span><span>(</span><span>bc</span><span>.</span><span>arg</span><span>)</span>
               <span>elif</span> <span>bc</span><span>.</span><span>op</span> <span>==</span> <span>"</span><span>BINOP</span><span>"</span><span>:</span>
                   <span>b</span> <span>=</span> <span>self</span><span>.</span><span>stack</span><span>.</span><span>pop</span><span>()</span>
                   <span>a</span> <span>=</span> <span>self</span><span>.</span><span>stack</span><span>.</span><span>pop</span><span>()</span>
                   <span>if</span> <span>bc</span><span>.</span><span>arg</span> <span>==</span> <span>'</span><span>+</span><span>'</span><span>:</span>
                       <span>self</span><span>.</span><span>stack</span><span>.</span><span>append</span><span>(</span><span>a</span> <span>+</span> <span>b</span><span>)</span>
                   <span>elif</span> <span>bc</span><span>.</span><span>arg</span> <span>==</span> <span>'</span><span>-</span><span>'</span><span>:</span>
                       <span>self</span><span>.</span><span>stack</span><span>.</span><span>append</span><span>(</span><span>a</span> <span>-</span> <span>b</span><span>)</span>
           <span>return</span> <span>self</span><span>.</span><span>stack</span><span>.</span><span>pop</span><span>()</span>
   <span># Running the interpreter </span>   <span>result</span> <span>=</span> <span>Interpreter</span><span>(</span><span>bytecodes</span><span>).</span><span>run</span><span>()</span>
   <span>print</span><span>(</span><span>"</span><span>Execution Result:</span><span>"</span><span>,</span> <span>result</span><span>)</span>  <span># Expected output: 8 </span>
   <span>class</span> <span>Interpreter</span><span>:</span>
       <span>def</span> <span>__init__</span><span>(</span><span>self</span><span>,</span> <span>bytecodes</span><span>):</span>
           <span>self</span><span>.</span><span>bytecodes</span> <span>=</span> <span>bytecodes</span>
           <span>self</span><span>.</span><span>stack</span> <span>=</span> <span>[]</span>

       <span>def</span> <span>run</span><span>(</span><span>self</span><span>):</span>
           <span>for</span> <span>bc</span> <span>in</span> <span>self</span><span>.</span><span>bytecodes</span><span>:</span>
               <span>if</span> <span>bc</span><span>.</span><span>op</span> <span>==</span> <span>"</span><span>PUSH</span><span>"</span><span>:</span>
                   <span>self</span><span>.</span><span>stack</span><span>.</span><span>append</span><span>(</span><span>bc</span><span>.</span><span>arg</span><span>)</span>
               <span>elif</span> <span>bc</span><span>.</span><span>op</span> <span>==</span> <span>"</span><span>BINOP</span><span>"</span><span>:</span>
                   <span>b</span> <span>=</span> <span>self</span><span>.</span><span>stack</span><span>.</span><span>pop</span><span>()</span>
                   <span>a</span> <span>=</span> <span>self</span><span>.</span><span>stack</span><span>.</span><span>pop</span><span>()</span>
                   <span>if</span> <span>bc</span><span>.</span><span>arg</span> <span>==</span> <span>'</span><span>+</span><span>'</span><span>:</span>
                       <span>self</span><span>.</span><span>stack</span><span>.</span><span>append</span><span>(</span><span>a</span> <span>+</span> <span>b</span><span>)</span>
                   <span>elif</span> <span>bc</span><span>.</span><span>arg</span> <span>==</span> <span>'</span><span>-</span><span>'</span><span>:</span>
                       <span>self</span><span>.</span><span>stack</span><span>.</span><span>append</span><span>(</span><span>a</span> <span>-</span> <span>b</span><span>)</span>
           <span>return</span> <span>self</span><span>.</span><span>stack</span><span>.</span><span>pop</span><span>()</span>

   <span># Running the interpreter </span>   <span>result</span> <span>=</span> <span>Interpreter</span><span>(</span><span>bytecodes</span><span>).</span><span>run</span><span>()</span>
   <span>print</span><span>(</span><span>"</span><span>Execution Result:</span><span>"</span><span>,</span> <span>result</span><span>)</span>  <span># Expected output: 8 </span>
   class Interpreter:
       def __init__(self, bytecodes):
           self.bytecodes = bytecodes
           self.stack = []

       def run(self):
           for bc in self.bytecodes:
               if bc.op == "PUSH":
                   self.stack.append(bc.arg)
               elif bc.op == "BINOP":
                   b = self.stack.pop()
                   a = self.stack.pop()
                   if bc.arg == '+':
                       self.stack.append(a + b)
                   elif bc.arg == '-':
                       self.stack.append(a - b)
           return self.stack.pop()

   # Running the interpreter    result = Interpreter(bytecodes).run()
   print("Execution Result:", result)  # Expected output: 8

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info: Each step—tokenization, parsing, compilation, and interpretation—mirrors the process used in professional compilers. For deeper dives, check out resources like Crafting Interpreters and Python’s AST documentation.

Stats Corner:

Performance Gains: Python 3.11’s improvements have led to performance boosts of up to 25% in many applications.
Learning Impact: Developers who build compilers often report a 30–50% improvement in their understanding of language internals.

3. Diving Deeper: Advanced AST Manipulation

An AST isn’t just a tool for building compilers—it’s a window into the very structure of your code. Many powerful tools, including linters, code formatters, and optimizers, rely on ASTs.

Why Work with ASTs?

Clarity: ASTs break down code into its essential elements, making it easier to analyze program structure.
Flexibility: With ASTs, you can programmatically modify code, add features, or refactor without manually editing source files.
Tooling: Many modern Python tools (e.g., Black, pylint) use ASTs to enforce style and catch bugs.

info: “Understanding your code’s AST is like having a blueprint of your program’s inner workings—it’s essential for advanced analysis and optimization.”

Example: Changing All Numbers to a Constant

Let’s create a simple AST transformer that changes every integer literal to 42. This is a fun experiment that shows the power of AST manipulation.


<span>import</span> <span>ast</span>
<span>class</span> <span>NumberChanger</span><span>(</span><span>ast</span><span>.</span><span>NodeTransformer</span><span>):</span>
    <span>def</span> <span>visit_Constant</span><span>(</span><span>self</span><span>,</span> <span>node</span><span>):</span>
        <span># Check if the node is an integer </span>        <span>if</span> <span>isinstance</span><span>(</span><span>node</span><span>.</span><span>value</span><span>,</span> <span>int</span><span>):</span>
            <span># Replace the number with 42 </span>            <span>return</span> <span>ast</span><span>.</span><span>copy_location</span><span>(</span><span>ast</span><span>.</span><span>Constant</span><span>(</span><span>value</span><span>=</span><span>42</span><span>),</span> <span>node</span><span>)</span>
        <span>return</span> <span>node</span>
<span>source_code</span> <span>=</span> <span>"</span><span>print(13); x = 28</span><span>"</span>
<span>tree</span> <span>=</span> <span>ast</span><span>.</span><span>parse</span><span>(</span><span>source_code</span><span>)</span>
<span>modified_tree</span> <span>=</span> <span>NumberChanger</span><span>().</span><span>visit</span><span>(</span><span>tree</span><span>)</span>
<span>ast</span><span>.</span><span>fix_missing_locations</span><span>(</span><span>modified_tree</span><span>)</span>
<span>code_obj</span> <span>=</span> <span>compile</span><span>(</span><span>modified_tree</span><span>,</span> <span>"</span><span><ast></span><span>"</span><span>,</span> <span>"</span><span>exec</span><span>"</span><span>)</span>
<span>exec</span><span>(</span><span>code_obj</span><span>)</span>
<span># Output will show all numbers replaced by 42 </span>
<span>import</span> <span>ast</span>

<span>class</span> <span>NumberChanger</span><span>(</span><span>ast</span><span>.</span><span>NodeTransformer</span><span>):</span>
    <span>def</span> <span>visit_Constant</span><span>(</span><span>self</span><span>,</span> <span>node</span><span>):</span>
        <span># Check if the node is an integer </span>        <span>if</span> <span>isinstance</span><span>(</span><span>node</span><span>.</span><span>value</span><span>,</span> <span>int</span><span>):</span>
            <span># Replace the number with 42 </span>            <span>return</span> <span>ast</span><span>.</span><span>copy_location</span><span>(</span><span>ast</span><span>.</span><span>Constant</span><span>(</span><span>value</span><span>=</span><span>42</span><span>),</span> <span>node</span><span>)</span>
        <span>return</span> <span>node</span>

<span>source_code</span> <span>=</span> <span>"</span><span>print(13); x = 28</span><span>"</span>
<span>tree</span> <span>=</span> <span>ast</span><span>.</span><span>parse</span><span>(</span><span>source_code</span><span>)</span>
<span>modified_tree</span> <span>=</span> <span>NumberChanger</span><span>().</span><span>visit</span><span>(</span><span>tree</span><span>)</span>
<span>ast</span><span>.</span><span>fix_missing_locations</span><span>(</span><span>modified_tree</span><span>)</span>
<span>code_obj</span> <span>=</span> <span>compile</span><span>(</span><span>modified_tree</span><span>,</span> <span>"</span><span><ast></span><span>"</span><span>,</span> <span>"</span><span>exec</span><span>"</span><span>)</span>
<span>exec</span><span>(</span><span>code_obj</span><span>)</span>
<span># Output will show all numbers replaced by 42 </span>
import ast

class NumberChanger(ast.NodeTransformer):
    def visit_Constant(self, node):
        # Check if the node is an integer         if isinstance(node.value, int):
            # Replace the number with 42             return ast.copy_location(ast.Constant(value=42), node)
        return node

source_code = "print(13); x = 28"
tree = ast.parse(source_code)
modified_tree = NumberChanger().visit(tree)
ast.fix_missing_locations(modified_tree)
code_obj = compile(modified_tree, "<ast>", "exec")
exec(code_obj)
# Output will show all numbers replaced by 42

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info: For further exploration, consider checking out the astunparse module which can convert ASTs back into readable Python code.

4. Enhancing Your Compiler with Real-World Resources

Building your own compiler is an ongoing journey, and there are countless resources to guide you:

Books:
- “Crafting Interpreters” by Bob Nystrom – an excellent guide for understanding interpreters and compilers.
- “Python in a Nutshell” by Alex Martelli – a practical reference for Python internals.
Online Tutorials:
- Real Python’s CPython Internals for insights into the reference implementation.
- Building a Compiler from Scratch for a comprehensive, step-by-step approach.
Communities:
- StackOverflow and Reddit’s r/Compilers for discussions and troubleshooting.
Source Code Repositories:
- CPython on GitHub – the source code of Python’s reference implementation.
- PyPy on GitHub – another excellent resource for JIT compilation.

info: Did you know? Advanced compiler techniques like copy-and-patch compilation are being integrated into Python’s JIT in the latest versions (see Copy-and-Patch).

5. Explore More Python Developer Resources

If you’re hungry for more knowledge and tools to level up your Python game, be sure to check out:

Python Developer Resources – Made by 0x3d.site

A curated hub for Python developers featuring essential tools, articles, and trending discussions.

Developer Resources

Articles

Trending Repositories

StackOverflow Trending

Trending Discussions

Bookmark it: python.0x3d.site

These resources are perfect for staying up-to-date with the latest trends, tools, and tutorials in the Python community.

6. Embracing the Journey: Tips, Challenges, and Motivation

Building a Python compiler is not just about assembling code—it’s a deep dive into the inner workings of programming languages. Here are some tips to keep you motivated:

Start Small: Focus on a small subset of the language (e.g., arithmetic expressions) before scaling up.
Iterate Constantly: Refactor your code as you learn more. Each stage of your compiler (tokenizer, parser, compiler, interpreter) should be refined continuously.
Test Thoroughly: Unit testing each module will help catch errors early and make debugging easier.
Use Debuggers and Profilers: Tools like PyCharm’s debugger or cProfile can be invaluable.
Stay Curious: Encountering bugs is part of the journey. Each error is a learning opportunity that brings you closer to mastery.
Join Communities: Engage with fellow developers on forums and discussion boards. Sharing your journey can provide new insights and solutions.

info: “Every expert was once a beginner. Embrace the challenges, and with every line of code, you’re one step closer to mastering the art of compiler construction.”

7. Bringing It All Together: Your Next Steps

Now that you have a high-level view and detailed, practical examples of building a Python compiler, it’s time to put your skills to the test:

Expand Your Compiler:
- Add support for more operations (subtraction, multiplication, division).
- Incorporate variables and simple assignment statements.
Enhance the Virtual Machine:
- Introduce conditional jumps and loops for basic control flow.
- Experiment with a simple memory model for variable storage.
Explore Advanced AST Transformations:
- Write transformers to modify code behavior, such as injecting logging or security checks.
- Use Python’s AST tools to build custom linters or refactoring tools.
Engage with the Community:
- Share your projects on GitHub.
- Contribute to open-source projects and exchange ideas on StackOverflow or Reddit’s r/Compilers.
Keep Learning:
- Read books like “Crafting Interpreters”.
- Follow online courses and blogs dedicated to compiler construction and Python internals.

info: By continuously learning and applying new techniques, you’ll not only build better tools but also become a more versatile and innovative developer.

Conclusion

Building a Python compiler isn’t merely an academic exercise—it’s a hands-on journey that unveils the magic behind how code transforms into action. By diving into tokenization, parsing, compilation, and interpretation, you’re not only creating a tool that transforms code but also unlocking a deeper understanding of programming languages.

So, roll up your sleeves, start experimenting, and embrace every challenge along the way. And remember, if you’re looking for more Python developer resources, Python Developer Resources – Made by 0x3d.site is your go-to curated hub for tools, articles, and discussions that will help you grow as a developer.

Now, go out there and build something amazing! Happy coding!

For more detailed guides, code snippets, and the latest discussions in the Python world, be sure to explore Python Developer Resources. It’s your one-stop destination for all things Python!

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原文链接：How I Built a Python Compiler (Yes, Really!)

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